Leonard Bernstein Conducts Beethoven's Ninth Symphony on Christmas Day 1989 in Berlin. The "Ode to Freedom" Movement Begins 57 Minutes into the Performance.
Ever since its premiere in 1824, Beethoven's 9th Symphony has deeply moved many millions of listeners. It is widely considered one of the best symphonies ever composed, and some would say it is the greatest. Can the social bonding theory of music explain the powerful appeal of this symphony?
Now, as I have indicated, no one claims that social bonding is the only function of music. Even if social bonding was the original evolutionary function of music, once music has emerged, it can serve many different functions for different people in different circumstances. But still if this theory is correct, we should expect that music often does have a social bonding effect for many people. And that does seem to be true for Beethoven's 9th. After all, the "Ode to Joy" explicitly invokes the brotherhood of all humanity--a universal social bonding. Moreover, Beethoven's 9th has a long political history of being used as a musical anthem by which people can mark their membership in a national or multinational community. Esteban Buch has covered this history in his book Beethoven's Ninth: A Political History (2003).
ANTHEMS AS MARKERS FOR SOCIAL MEMBERSHIP
That Beethoven's music can serve as a national or even international anthem that binds people together was asserted by Marcelo Lehninger in his conducting of the performance I heard in Grand Rapids. He began by speaking to the audience. He said that we needed to hear this music because "in these divisive times," we "need the message of brotherhood."
He then began the concert by conducting the orchestra in playing the Star-Spangled Banner, which is customary for the opening night of a new concert season. In 1931, the U. S. Congress passed a resolution to recognize this as the official national anthem for the United States. Previously, My Country 'Tis of Thee and America the Beautiful had been two other informally accepted national anthems, and they are still often sung as if they were the national anthem. This national anthem is a hymn (sacred or profane) sung by a chorus of people celebrating the unity of America. Even when there's a solo singer, many in the audience will sing along.
The Francis Scott Key's lyrics for the Star-Spangled Banner were inspired in 1814 by his seeing the U.S. flag flying triumphantly over Fort McHenry after a night of bombardment by the British Royal Navy in the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812, which was a sign that the British had failed to destroy the fort. So here the flag as a symbol of victory in battle represents America.
My Country 'Tis of Thee (or America) has the same melody as God Save the King, the British national anthem, but for the American song, the only king is God himself ("Great God, our king"). And this American anthem celebrates America as the land of liberty or freedom:
My country, 'tis of thee,
sweet land of liberty,
of thee I sing:
land where my fathers died,
land of the pilgrims' pride,
from every mountainside
let freedom ring!
So this anthem for America could be called An Ode to Freedom.
America the Beautiful is also sung as if it were the national anthem.
O beautiful for spacious skies,
For amber waves of grain,
For purple mountain majesties
Above the fruited plain!
America! America!
God shed His grace on thee
And crown thy good with brotherhood
From sea to shining sea!
Here there are three interconnected themes for unifying America into one people: the natural beauty of the American countryside, God's grace for America, and the brotherhood of Americans within the borders of America ("from sea to shining sea").
Similarly, in the fourth movement of the 9th Symphony, the chorus of mankind celebrates its unity--proclaiming "All men will become brothers." But here the brotherhood is universal.
We have to wonder: Can music really do that? Can music make us believe in the myth of a nation--or even the whole world--speaking with a single choral voice? And if so, what is the unifying theme through which millions or even billions of people can be one people? If "Joy" is the theme, does that have any clear meaning? Is "Freedom" a better theme with a clearer meaning? Or is the intellectual meaning of the lyrics unimportant as long as the music creates an emotional experience of social bonding? To have that emotional experience must the music have the sacred aura of a hymn that requires religious belief? Or can we enjoy the religious feelings of a patriotic hymn without believing any religious doctrines?
I have argued that a natural desire for social membership in an imagined community is part of our evolved human nature. It's an imagined community because it's a symbolic niche construction of our minds that we create by consenting to it, by agreeing to its reality. Singing an anthem is one way that we imagine ourselves as belonging to such a community. It's like a password or shibboleth.
In composing his 9th Symphony, Beethoven was building on a tradition that began in the 18th century. George Frederic Handel composed anthems for chorus and orchestra for the Hanoverian kings of England. The most memorable one--Zadok the Priest for the coronation of George II in 1727--used a revised biblical verse from the First Kings (1:39-40) about the coronation of Solomon:
Zadok the priest and Nathan the prophet anointed Solomon king.
And all the people rejoiced and said:
God save the King! Long live the King! God save the King!
May the King live for ever. Amen. Hallelujah.
The Priest and the Prophet anoint the King. And then the people collectively rejoice and pray for the King.
But the first true national anthem for the British became popular in 1745--God Save the King--when it was sung in support of George II after his defeat at the Battle of Prestonpans by the army of Charles Edward Stuart, the grandson of King James II and the Jacobite claimant to the British throne. It was a prayer from the people asking God to give the King victory over Charles.
God save our gracious King!
Long live our noble King!
God save the King!
Send him victorious,
Happy and glorious,
Long to reign over us,
God save the King!O Lord our God arise
Scatter his enemies
And make them fall
Confound their politics
Frustrate their knavish tricks
On thee our hopes we fix
God save us allThy choicest gifts in store,
On him be pleased to pour;
Long may he reign.
May he defend our laws,
And ever give us cause,
To sing with heart and voice,
God save the King!
God Save the King begins with the same biblical phrase as Zadok the Priest, but now it is a prayer by "us" the people, asking God for the victory and safety of "our" King. The people ask for divine protection in the face of a political and military threat not only to the King but to the whole community. Instead of the Stuart doctrine of divine right, the people suggest a contract between ruler and ruled: the people will be loyal to him only as long as he defends "our laws" and "ever give us cause, with heart and voice to sing, God save the King."
The God of Battles answered the people's prayer by giving George II victory over the Jacobites in the Battle of Culloden in 1746, which ended the Jacobite rising of 1745. This is what Locke called the "Appeal to Heaven," in which divine providence is decided on the battlefield.
Two years ago, I wrote about the importance of such choral hymns for the coronation of King Charles III and how Charles transformed the Coronation Liturgy into a Lockean liberal proclamation of individual liberty, religious toleration, and popular consent to government, which was open not only to people of all faiths but also to atheists.
BEETHOVEN'S PATRIOTIC MUSIC
In 1803, Beethoven composed piano variations on God Save the King and Rule Britannia. In 1813, he arranged God Save the King for soloist and unison chorus with an instrumental trio. In his notebook, he wrote: "I must give the English some notion of the blessing they have in their God Save the King (Buch, 73). This was part of Beethoven's patriotic action in supporting the English and their allies who were fighting against Napoleon's invading armies.
The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) became one of the deadliest series of wars in human history--with a death toll of over 4 million human beings. In 1803, Beethoven began work on a symphony that would eventually become the Eroica symphony, but in 1803 he called it Bonaparte, because he saw Napoleon as a heroic leader and liberator who was spreading the humanistic ideals of the Enlightenment. But then, on December 2, 1804, Napoleon entered the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, and in the presence of Pope Pius VII, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France by placing the Charlemagne Crown on his head.
When Beethoven heard this news, he complained to his student Ferdinand Ries: "So he too is nothing more than an ordinary man! Now he also will trample all human rights underfoot, and only pander to his own ambition. He will place himself above everyone else and become a tyrant!" He then took up the title page of the symphony, ripped it in two, and threw it to the floor (Swafford, 2014, 384).
That Beethoven was right about Napoleon being a tyrant who would suppress all human rights soon became clear. A few months after Napoleon's crowning himself Emperor, the French government issued an "Imperial Catechism" and directed the Church to teach this new catechism, which included these responses:
Q. Why are we obligated to all of these duties to our Emperor?
A. First, because God, who created empires and distributes them according to His will, in heaping on our Emperor gifts, both in peace and war, has established him as our sovereign and rendered him the minister of His power and image on earth. To honor and serve our Emperor is thus to honor and serve God himself.
Q. What should one think of those who fail in their duty to the Emperor?
A. According to the Apostle Saint Paul, they would be resisting the order established by God Himself, and would render themselves worthy of eternal damnation.
Q. What is forbidden to us by the Fourth Commandment?
A. We are forbidden to be disobedient to our superiors, to injure them, or to speak ill of them (Swafford, 2014, 385-86).
In his biography of Beethoven, Jan Swafford has shown that Beethoven was a man of the eighteenth-century European Enlightenment who looked forward to a world ruled by reason, science, and the rights of man, which explains why he was so disgusted with Napoleon's tyrannical denial of freedom and human rights. When Immanuel Kant asked the question "What Is Enlightenment?" he answered: Saper aude! Dare to know! "Have the courage to use your own understanding! is thus the motto of Enlightenment." Similarly, Beethoven wrote: "Only art and science can raise men to the level of gods." When one of his colleagues wrote on a score, "Finished with the help of God," Beethoven wrote under it, "O Man, help yourself!" Beethoven also resolved: "To do good wherever we can, to love liberty above all things, and never to deny truth though it be at the throne itself." Swafford observed that while Beethoven "never quite spelled out those ideals in words," those Enlightenment ideals "would be found in his music, and in the lyrics he chose to embody in music--above all, An die Freude" (Swafford, 2014, 47-50, 54, 129, 306, 853).
This explains why Beethoven composed music in 1813 celebrating the victory of the Duke of Wellington leading allied troops against Napoleon's army on June 21, 1813, near the Spanish village of Victoria. A few months later, Beethoven composed Wellington's Victory, or The Battle of Vittoria--often referred to as the "Battle Symphony."
This also explains why Beethoven became a composer of official state music for the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), which was a series of international diplomatic meetings in Vienna to develop a plan for restoring peace and order to Europe after the fall of Napoleon. The Congress was chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, who called the Congress's plan "The Concert of Europe." Friedrich von Gentz, the Congress's secretary described the purpose of the plan: "By their geographic situation, through their customs, their laws, their needs, their way of life and their culture, the states of this continent, taken as a whole, constitute a great political federation that has--and rightly--been called the European Republic." This echoed Immanuel Kant's proposal for a federation of European states that would enforce international peace and human rights (Buch, 2003, 76).
In 1814, Beethoven premiered his opera Fidelio, a revised version of Leonore, which had originally appeared in 1805. Fidelio became so popular in Vienna that it had multiple performance, including a performance before an audience of political and diplomatic dignitaries in Vienna for the Congress.
In the opera, Fidelio is actually Lenore, a noblewoman disguised as a boy who plots to free her husband Florestan from prison where he is being held as a political prisoner and a victim of political tyranny. The opera becomes a hymn to freedom and liberation from tyranny.
After Leonore persuades a prison guard to allow the prisoners to walk in the courtyard for a few moments, the prisoners enjoy the open air and sunlight and talk about their hope that they will someday go free. The chorus of prisoners sing about freedom (Freiheit), shouting : "O freedom, freedom, will you return?"
Later, we see Florestan alone in a dark dungeon. He murmurs about his cruel fortune. But then he has an ecstatic vision of Leonore as an angel who leads him to freedom. Zur Freiheit!--"To Freedom!"--he cries over and over in spine-chilling high notes.
When Leonore finally succeeds in freeing Florestan, the two of them sing beautiful arias about the "inexpressible joy" (O namenlose Freude) they feel in being reunited as husband and wife. In celebrating the happiness or joy that comes from conjugal love, the chorus sings a line from Schiller's Ode to Joy: "Happy he whom Heaven has granted/To be loved by such a wife!"
Fidelio thus suggests that freedom is the precondition of joy because we must be free to pursue joy.
At the Congress of Vienna, Fidelio was generally seen as a celebration of the defeat of the Napoleonic armies and as an allegory for a Europe liberated from tyrannical conquest.
Beethoven encouraged this interpretation of his music. During the early months of the Congress, he composed The Glorious Moment, a cantata for soloists, chorus, and orchestra that was a musical representation of this European Moment that was announced in the opening statement:
Europe is risen! Europe is risen!
And the times in their headlong rush,
The chorus of peoples and former centuries,
Look on in amazement!
This European Moment was universalized in the repeated phrase: "In the peaceful union of brothers/Liberated mankind itself embraces!" Thus, the "chorus of peoples" invokes the freedom and brotherhood of mankind in the glorious European moment.
Here Beethoven's political music representing the Enlightenment vision of international peace, liberty, and brotherhood anticipated what he would do in 1824 in the 9th Symphony's Ode to Joy.
THE NINTH SYMPHONY
In his program notes for the GRSO's performance of the 9th Symphony, John Varineau suggests that "the first three movements can be heard as a search for that ultimate expression signifying the fellowship of humanity that we hear in the fourth." He then explains:
The last movement begins in chaos with the woodwinds and brass. The cellos and basses, imitating an operatic baritone, demand to know what is going on. The orchestra tentatively suggests the first movement. No! Then the second. No! The third? No! The cello and basses then suggest the answer with the famous tune.
That famous tune is taken mostly from Friedrich Schiller's poem Ode to Joy, except for the first few lines added by Beethoven (indicated by italics). Here's the English translation:
O friends, not these sounds!
Let us sing more cheerful songs,
More songs full of joy!
Joy!
Joy!(1) Joy, beautiful spark of divinity,
Daughter from Elysium,
Fire-inspired we tread
Within thy sanctuary.
Thy magic power re-unites
All that custom has divided,
All men become brothers,
Under the sway of thy gentle wings.(2) Whoever has been lucky enough
to become a friend to a friend,
Or has won
A true and loving wife,
All who can call at least one soul theirs,
Join our song of praise;
But those who cannot must creep tearfully
Away from our circle.(3) All creatures drinks in joy
At nature's breast.
Good and Evil
Alike taste of her gift;
She gave us kisses and the fruit of the vine,
A true friend even in death.
Even the worm can feel sexual desire,
And the cherub stands before God!(4) Gladly, like the heavenly bodies
Which He sent on their courses
Through the splendor of the firmament;
Thus, brothers, you should run your race,
Like a hero going to victory!(5) You millions, I embrace you.
This kiss is for all the world!
Brothers, above the starry canopy
There must dwell a loving Father.
Do you bow before him, you millions?
World, do you sense your creator?
Seek Him above the canopy of stars;Above the stars must He dwell.
| When the baritone soloist first shouted "Oh friends, not these sounds!", that was the first time that a singing voice had entered a symphony. The search for "more joyful sounds" requires a combination of instrumental and vocal music--a choral symphony. The baritone identifies all the members of the orchestra and the singers as his friends. And throughout the Ode, "friends" (Freunde) and "joy" (Freude) are linked, which is underscored in German by the similarity of the two German words. Originally, Schiller wrote his Ode as a tribute to his close friend Christian Gottfried Korner. But then the poem expands to include all forms of love or social bonding, including not only friendship but also conjugal love, brotherly love, love of God ("the cherub stands before God"), and God's love for His creatures ("a loving Father"). Joy, it seems, is found in love. And the most joyful sounds are the music of love. Joy is first identified as the "beautiful spark of divinity, / Daughter from Elysium," the afterlife in Greek mythology. But then this image of joy as a supernatural infusion is followed in the third stanza with the claim that joy comes from natural longings. "Every creature drinks in joy at nature's breast," and even the worm feels something like joy in his sexual desire. How can the pursuit of joy be both natural and supernatural? Could it be a natural desire for happiness that can never be fully satisfied in this life because it's really a desire for the supernatural happiness of eternal bliss with God in Heaven? That was C. S. Lewis's primary argument for the existence of God: the desire for Joy points to God as the supernatural object that will satisfy that desire. We all desire whatever we think will make us fully happy or joyful. But then when we possess the object of our desire, we discover that it does not give us Joy. Lewis wrote: "A baby feels hunger; well, there is such a thing as food. A duckling wants to swim, water exists to do it. So if I find within myself a desire which no experience in this world can satisfy, the most likely explanation is that I was made for another world." "I am not asking anyone to accept Christianity if his best reasoning tells him that the weight of the evidence is against it." That was C. S. Lewis's claim in Mere Christianity that he had rational arguments for showing how the weight of the evidence supported Christianity. In the Reason/Revelation debate, Lewis thought that Reason could prove, or at least render probable, the truth of Christian Revelation. I have responded to Lewis by arguing that while there is an evolved natural desire for religious transcendence, or for what Lewis calls "Joy," the existence of this desire provides no evidence for the real existence of the supernatural object--God--that would satisfy this desire. In the Reason/Revelation debate, neither side can conclusively refute the other. But the debate must continue because this is the deepest debate that human beings can have--the debate over whether the highest good for human beings is earthly happiness or Joy in the natural world that we can experience, or whether that highest good can only be found in the eternal happiness or Joy of Heaven. The "Ode to Joy" is not clearly on one side or the other in this debate. The last stanza does lean towards Revelation's vision of heavenly happiness: "Do you bow down before Him, you millions?/Do you sense your Creator, O world?/Seek Him above the canopy of stars!/He must dwell beyond the stars." And yet this could also be intimating my position--that while many people will feel a natural desire for religious Joy in Heaven with God, the natural reality of this desire does not prove the supernatural reality of the Heavenly Joy that is sought. Notice that the Ode speaks of people seeking God, but it does not say that they will surely find what they seek. If Fidelio is correct in suggesting that freedom is the precondition of joy because we need to be free to pursue joy, that should apply here. Only in a free society are we free to openly debate Reason and Revelation in arguing about whether our natural desire for happiness or joy can be satisfied in this life, or whether it points to a Heavenly Joy. As I have indicated in my posts on Lewis, he was free to debate these issues in the Oxford Socratic Club, and other venues, where religious believers debated atheists and agnostics, because he lived in a modern liberal society that secured freedom of thought and speech. In an illiberal closed society, this would not have been possible. As I have indicated, Lewis understood this, and that's why he was a Lockean liberal who rejected theocracy as a form of tyranny, who believed that government should not have the power to legally enforce Christian orthodoxy, and who thought the only proper aim of government was to secure individual liberty from legal interference except when necessary to prevent harm to others. THE POLITICAL RECEPTION OF THE ODE TO JOY The many attempts to adopt Beethoven's Ode to Joy as an anthem for a political community or political ideology are often confusing because of their implausible appropriations of the music. For example, as planned by Joseph Goebbel, Hitler's birthday in 1937 was celebrated with a performance of the Ninth Symphony conducted by Wilhelm Furtwangler with the Berlin Philharmonic. This was repeated in 1942. Some of the Nazi cultural leaders said that Beethoven and Wagner were the two poles of truly German music that had been united in the personality of Adolf Hitler. But in 1938, Hanns Eisler, a famous German-Austrian composer and a communist anti-Nazi, ridiculed the idea that the Ninth Symphony was pro-Nazi: "All men become brothers, with the exception of all the peoples whose lands we want to annex, with the exception of the Jews, the Blacks, and a great many others to boot" (Buch, 2003, 205-209). The same absurd adoption of the Ode to Joy as an anthem for a racist regime occurred in 1974 when Ian Smith's white supremacist government in Rhodesia adopted the Ode to Joy as a national anthem to replace God Save the Queen. A music critic for the Rhodesian Herald wrote that he was "stupefied" by the "plagiarism" for "local nationalistic ends" of music with "supra-national associations" and "indissolubly linked with ideas on the brotherhood of mankind" (Buch, 2003, 243-47). A more credible appropriation of the Ode to Joy as a political anthem occurred in 1972 when a purely instrumental version of the opening melody of the Ode to Joy was adopted by the Council of Europe as the anthem of Europe. In 1985, it was adopted by the European Union. Anthem of the European Union It's hard to imagine that an instrumental Ode to Joy without the singing can ever have the power of the original. After all, Beethoven's baritone soloist was clear that a "more joyful sound" would have to be a song rather than a purely instrumental melody. Moreover, it's not clear that this music has the emotional power to bind the European nations into one multinational community. If the people of Europe were to sing an anthem that would express their membership in the European Community, what would be the words for that song? Generally, national anthems tell stories about the heroic historical events that have made the nation great. What heroic story could a European anthem tell? Could the lyrics of the Ode to Joy--perhaps slightly altered--tell that European story? One answer to those questions came on Christmas Day in 1989 in Berlin when Leonard Bernstein conducted a performance of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony that was broadcast by satellite transmission to countries around the world. Bernstein made one change in the Ode to Joy: he replaced Freude with Freiheit. In a program note for the concert, he wrote:
The "historical moment" was the first year of the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the fall of communism that began with mass protests against communist rule across Eastern Europe. In November of 1988, Estonia became the first Soviet Republic to declare its independence from Moscow. Others followed. On November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall fell. It had been built in 1961 to keep people in communist East Berlin from running away to freedom in West Berlin. Once the Berlin Wall came down, it became clear that East and West Germany would eventually be reunified under the rule of a liberal democratic government. Thus, in the fall of 1989, it seemed that the Cold War was coming to an end, and that the "Free World" had defeated communism. 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